•4/7 



A STUDY OF 



The Teaching of 
Mechanical Drawing 

In the Public Schools, Colleges 
and Universities of Ohio 



By 

CARL L. SVENSEN, M. E. 

Department of Engineering Drawing 

The Ohio State University 




Published by the 

Department of Education 
VERNON M. RIEGEL, Director 



COLUMBUS, OHIO 
1922 



A STUDY OF 

THE TEACHING OF 
MECHANICAL DRAWING 

In the Public Schools, Colleges and 
Universities of Ohio 



By 
CARL L. SVENSEN, M. E. 

Department of Engineering Drawing 
The Ohio State University 




Published by the 

Department of Education 
VERNON M. RIEGEL, Director 

COLUMBUS, OHIO 

1922 



Columbus, Ohio: 

The F. J. Heer Printing Co. 

1922 

(Bound at the State Bindery.) 






' LIBRARY OF CONGRESS \ 
RECEIVEO i] 

OCT 2 1923 

DOCUMENTS DlVISfON | 



FOREWORD 

By Thomas E. French, M. E., Sc. D. 
Head of Department of Engineering Draiving, the Ohio State University 

The position of the Ohio State University as a part of the educa- 
tional system of the State indicates that it should possess an adequate 
knowledge of the preparation which has been received by the students 
entering it. The University is interested, without any idea of domina- 
tion, in the work of the public schools, and it is believed the schools are 
interested in the judgment and suggestions of the University. 

In any subject a knowledge of what is being done by others is al- 
ways stimulating. It is particularly desirable in subjects whose content 
and methods of teaching have not yet become more or less standardized 
by experience and agreement. In a fundamental subject there would 
seem to be little reason for wide variation in the content of courses. It 
ought to be possible for pupils to transfer easily from one school to 
another, or for students to change from one college to another without 
loss of credit. 

The great popular interest in industrial and engineering work has 
resulted in an increased use of mechanical drawing as a means of de- 
scription. It is rapidly becoming a part of our language and its influence 
is shown by its widespread adoption as a fundamental subject of study. 

While mechanical drawing has been taught in some schools for many 
years there probably has been less thought given to its purpose, its con- 
tent, its methods and its educational value than other subjects have had. 
The wide variation in the qualifications of students entering the Uni- 
versity with entrance credits in drawing, indicating a seeming lack of 
uniformity in these courses, has interested the writer for a number of 
years, and, for one thing, resulted in a survey of mechanical drawing in 
the High schools of Ohio.* This survey aroused the feeling that there 
should be closer co-operation, and that an attempt should be made to 
bring about some degree of standardizatiorl as to content, method and 
purpose. The preparation and qualifications of the teachers of this 
branch of drawing would naturally be included. Interest in the subject, 
and the idea that, as the High School is midway between the grades and 
the colleges, the survey might be extended in both directions, with profit 
to all three, led Professor Svensen of the Department of Engineering 
Drawing, Ohio State University, to continue the study by making a sur- 



* Mechanical Drawing in High Schools, by Thomas E. French and Carl L. 
Svensen. Published by the Department of Public Instruction, State of Ohio, 1919. 



vey of the work in mechanical drawing in the grade schools and in the 
colleges of Ohio. 

The results of his study are here presented, with suggestions and 
comments which it is hoped may help bring about a closer degree of 
co-operation and mutual helpfulness between the various educational 
divisions. 

The value of this work has been recognized by the granting of a 
graduate degree to Professor Svensen by his Alma Mater, Tufts Col- 
lege, which accepted the material as a thesis. 



A STUDY OF THE TEACHING OF MECHANICAL 
DRAWING IN THE STATE OF OHIO 

By Carl L. Svensen, B. S., M. E. 

SECTION I 
General Introduction 

The civilization of mankind has progressed through the ages due to 
the accumulation of knowledge and its dissemination. Fire and water 
have contributed immeasurably to bodily comfort, but the development 
of a language, spoken and written has really made civilization possible. 

The oldest of all languages, the graphic language, has made possi- 
ble the industrial or mechanical age in which we now live. It is there- 
fore desirable that a study of the teaching of this language should be 
made on a statewide basis and that an appreciation of what is being done 
and what it is possible to accomplish through the development and co- 
ordination of courses in drawing should be made known. 

Mechanical drawing has come to be recognized as one of the funda- 
mental courses of study in the State of Ohio and is quite generally 
taught in the grade schools, high schools, colleges and universities of 
the State. 

The Purpose and Plan of this Study 

This study is undertaken with the idea of presenting the subject of 
mechanical drawing in such a manner as to inspire a certain degree of 
appreciation of its place in the curriculum, to present the subject in its 
true light as having both practical and cultural value, to present infor- 
mation as to the extent to which mechanical drawing is taught in the 
schools of the State to assist in correlating the courses as given in grade 
schools, high schools and colleges, to present information as to character, 
content and development of courses of study, to present information and 
ideas which may be of value to teachers of mechanical drawing and 
which may help to raise the standards of teaching this subject. 

It is hoped that this study may tend to a realization of the value of 
treating mechanical drawing as a continuous and progressive subject 
from the grades through the university. 

It is hoped that this study may lead to a more complete realization 
of the value of mechanical drawing as a cultural subject with unlimited 
possibilities in an educational way. 

Mechanical Drawing — A Language 

Drawing was the first means of recording and communicating man's 
ideas and will always continue to be a most valuable and definite lan- 
guage. 

5 



In the preface to Dean Anthony's "Mechanical Drawing" the fact 
is emphasized that mechanical drawing is a language. He says that the 
student "should be taught to regard graphics as a language study, the 
grammatical construction of which is developed in the Theory of Pro- 
jection. . . . the subject should be taught as an art of expression 
rather than one of pictorial representation. Although most people rec- 
ognize drawing as a medium for conveying thought, few appreciate the 
importance of teaching it as a language. But such it is in the fullest sense, 
possessing a well-defined grammatical construction, rich in varied forms of 
expression, forcible yet simple, and truly universal."' 

Professor French says in the preface to "Engineering Drawing," 
"It would seem that a better unity of method might result if there were 
a better recognition of the conception that drawing is a real language, 
to be studied and taught in the same way as any other language." 

This conception of drawing as a language is by no means modern 
for the statements of James Nasmith eighty years ago might well seem 
to be the words of today. A few quotations from Nasmith's auto- 
biography are worthy of reflection. "It is very strange that amid all our 
vaunted improvements in education, the faculty of comparison bv sight, 
or what may commonly be called the correctness of the eye. has been so 
little attended to." 

"Drawing is the education of the eye, it is more interesting than 
words. It is the graphic language." 

"Mechanical drawing is the alphabet of the engineer, without this 
the workman is merely a hand, — with it he indicates the possession of a 
head." 

Languages are a means of thought as well as a means of expression. 
It is possible for an Englishman, a Frenchman, and a German to have 
the same thought, each in his own language but these thoughts when put 
into writing will have a different appearance and may mean nothing ex- 
cept to those who know the particular language used. However, if the 
graphic language is used the meaning will be the same to all, as no varia- 
tion can be made in the appearance of a graphic statement or description 
without changing its meaning. Peculiarities of tongue, geographical lo- 
cation, or other influences have no effect upon the graphical language. . 
As a means of exact description it surpasses all other languages, it de- 
velops exact thinking, it develops the imaginative powers, it develops the 
power of accurate observation, and opens the way to the enjoyment and 
use of the unlimited possibilities of these powers. 

Historical Notes 

The graphical language has always been an invaluable aid in the 
progress of mankind toward civilization and in the development of that 
civilization. It seems very probable that plans of some kind were used 



by the ancients, as their works were most always built to a scale based 
upon a definite unit of measurement. This unit appears to have been 
derived from some part of the human body and so has varied among 
different peoples. Tradition informs us that the length of the foot of 
Hercules was the standard of Greece. 

There is little available on the history of drafting as w^e know it. 
We do not know just what kinds of drawings the ancients used, but it 
is likely that some form of combination of plans and pictures was used 
to indicate the appearance and proportion of the various constructions. 
It is natural then to suppose that the first draftsmen were artists. It 
may be interesting to note that Leonardo da Vinci was a drafsman and 
engineer who made sketches of machines and details of machines. These 
sketches, according to one of his historians, "are enlivened with a grace 
and confidence of stroke, an expressiveness of meaning such as no other 
draftsman ever gave." These sketch books tell us that drafting was 
practiced as early as 1475. This does not mean the kind of drawing 
which is used today — but drawings which had the same reasons for 
being made- — ^ namely to give the details of constructions. Projection 
drawing as we know it is of comparatively modern origin, although 
drawings have always been more or less used for constructive work. 

The science of mechanical drawing is based upon orthographic pro- 
jection, by means of which objects may be accurately described. The 
development of this science is due to Gaspard Monge, a noted French 
mathematician, who published his work on Descriptive Geometry in 
1790. With this knowledge of the theory of drawing, its development 
became more rapid and its application more general. W'ith simplification 
and definiteness it was found possible to give instructions to workmen by 
means of drawings, to record and develop ideas and to describe construc- 
tions accurately and completely. It is hard to realize what this has meant 
in the progress of the world. This possibility of conceiving and building 
things out of nothing — this possibility of conceiving and describing 
material things without actually building them. It is not stich a long 
time since models were made for such purposes. In fact, at one time 
the United States Patent Office required models of inventions. Such 
models had to be in proportion, had to operate and had to be contained 
within a box measuring one foot in each direction. Now, models are 
not allowed and inventions are described by drawings which occupy a 
space of 8'' x 13'', although more than one sheet is used where necessary. 
The possibilities of the graphic language are very strongly emphasized 
when it is realized that the wonderful inventions which have been made 
in recent years can be represented in such a small space by this mode of 
expression. 

It is interesting to note the effect of drawing in connection with 
many of the great inventions and the lives of the inventors. It is sur- 
prising to learn the number of instances where the most successful in- 



8 

ventors, and the greatest engineers have been the men into whose biogra- 
phies it is written that they were skillful draftsmen. Robert Fulton, the 
first Americacn engineer of real ability and training had a passion for 
mechanical drawing. Before he was seventeen years old he was sup- 
porting himself as an artist and draftsman. In 1796 his plans were ac- 
cepted for a cast iron aqueduct which was constructed across the river 
Dee in Scotland. He had much to do with other engineering matters than 
the steamboat, and it is said that his undertakings were greatly aided by 
the many beautiful and accurate drawings which his skill as an artist 
and draftsman enabled him to make. His fame came through habits of 
careful . experimentation and study developed by his knowledge of the 
graphic language. His conclusions were preserved in elaborate notes 
and beautifully drawn plans. 

Captain John Ericsson is another famous engineer who was pri- 
marily a draftsman. He entered the Sw^edish army when he was seven- 
teen and was employed in making military maps. His work over the 
drawing board continued for nearly seventy years. His drawings were 
remarkably accurate, to the very smallest detail. During the Civil War 
his designs for new warships were carried on under rush orders. At 
such times work was started with the first drawing and followed by suc- 
ceeding drawings which were sent to different plants, so that the work 
was going on at several places at the same time. Being such an expert 
draftsman himself, he required the same degree of excellence from those 
who worked for him, and is said to have been one of the most exacting 
of employers, for nothing but the very finest, most accurate and pains- 
taking work would satisfy him. 

It would be possible to enumerate other connections of the great 
engineers and inventors with skillful draftsmanship. Draftsmanship 
means not only mechanical drawing but the graphic language in all forms 
and as used by the executive and trained engineer — freehand sketching. 

James Watt, inventor of the steam engine, first illustrated some of 
his inventions in sketches included as parts of letters written in connec- 
tion with his engineering work. Many other engineers have preserved 
their thoughts by means of sketches. Field, of Maudsly and Field, one 
of the most famous of early English machine tool builders, had what he 
called a talking book, or graphic diary, in which sketches and notes were 
made while talking with prospective customers or in connection with 
their own machine tool building were carefully preserved. 

In the hurry of modern times we seem to have worked away from 
this old time appreciation of this most valuable science — too often it 
is thought of as a training of the hand rather than as the education of 
the eye and brain. 



Mechanical Drawing as a Practical Subject 

The practical value of mechanical drawing and the ease of using 
or directly applying even a small knowledge of this subject is so evident 
that it needs little comment. It is necessary, however, that the larger 
purposes should be kept in mind. 

It is, of course, a fundamental branch of study for industrial and 
technical training for the workman, engineer, or executive. Its im- 
portance as a practical subject is such that drawing must meet modern 
technical and engineering requirements. Theory alone will not do this. 
Mechanical drawing is, therefore, a subject with a double value, in that 
it teaches both theory and practice. 

Mechanical Drawing as an Educational Subject 

There has been a feeling of uneasiness, of regret, in the minds of 
many educators over the passing of the so-called classical education. 
The seeming contempt and somewhat rough shod methods of those who 
spurn any subject which is not "practical" or which does not have a 
direct ''dollar value" has created a certain unfavorable opinion in the 
minds of some educators. Drawing has suffered from this. The value 
of mechanical drawing as applied to the industries is so evident that its 
cultural value is sometimes neglected. The fact that drawing is useful 
does not make it any less valuable as a cultural subject. The great value 
of drawing is not in learning to use the instruments and tools, it is not 
in learning to read blue prints, it is not in learning how to represent the 
shape of an object by means of lines, it is not from its value as a trade 
or profession. Its greatest value comes from a language training, from 
the mental discipline of a language which requires the ability to imagine 
definitely, to visualize clearly, and to think accurately. It is what takes 
place in the brain rather than the lines on a piece of paper or blue print, 
which gives drawing its greatest value. 

SECTION II 
A State Survey 

The making of a complete state survey of the teaching of any sub- 
ject would require the services of a number of experts and a large amount 
of time. The present survey cannot be considered complete but care has 
been taken, so far as time and facilities permitted, to prevent it from 
being superficial. The grade schools, high schools and colleges were in- 
cluded, as it was deemed extremely important that the subject be con- 
sidered as a continuous one. 

Questions and letters were used to secure the desired information. 
)Vhile complete answers were not received, enough data was obtained to 



lO 

indicate present conditions. The grade school and college survey was 
conducted by the writer. The high school survey was made in collabora- 
tion with Professor Thomas E. French of the Ohio State University. 

The questions and summarized answers which follow will give some 
idea of the present status of mechanical drawing in the State of Ohio, 
the extent of the subject, the time time devoted to it, the kinds of teach- 
ers, their viewpoints, and the methods being pursued. 

Mechanical Drawing in Grade Schools 

The questions which follow were submitted to the superintendents 
of public schools in 30 of the larger cities of the state and repHes ob- 
tained from those listed : 

Alliance Marietta 

Ashtabula Massillon 

Canton Newark 

Cincinnati Norwood 

Cleveland Piqua 

Columbus Portsmouth 

Dayton Toledo 

Elyria Warren 

Hamilton Youngstown 

Ironton Zanesville 

The replies are summarized for convenience of interpretation. 

1. Is mechanical drawing taught as a separate course in the grade 
schools of your city? About 40% of the replies gave "yes" in answer 
to this question. Three schools reported no mechanical drawing taught 
in the grades. 

2. In ivhat grades is it taught? Mechanical drawing is taught in 
the 7th and 8th grades in over 80% of the schools. Three schools 
reported 6th, 7th and 8th and one 5th to 12th grades. 

3. About how much time is devoted to mechanical drawing in each 
grade in hours per week? The answers to this question showed con- 
siderable variation. The most usual time was i]/^ hours per week. In 
many places drawing is given for only part of the school year, from 
seven to eighteen weeks. 

4. How many pupils take mechanical drazvingf Total of all 
grades? Total number of pupils for same grades for all subjects? The 
answers to this question were rather incomplete but indicated about one- 
half of the pupils in the 7th and 8th grades were receiving some instruc- 
tion in mechanical drawing. 

5. Is a text book used? Name of text? About 50% of the schools 
use a text book. Several reported books available for reference. 



11 

6. How is work presented to pupils f Lecture or Demonstration — • 
Notes — ^ Blueprints — . Many schools use all four methods. Lectures 
and demonstrations seem to be favored. 

7. Is mechanical drawing correlated with other subjects^ If so, 
what subjects? In most schools some attempt is made to correlate 
drawing and the various shop work or ^nanunl training courses and in 
several schools with mathematics. Only two schools reported no cor- 
relation. 

8. Is a definite method of grading drawings u^edf Explain 
briefly. More than half the schools attempt a somewhat definite system 
of grading but there is no uniformity. Accuracy, neatness, and tech 
nique form the basis for most grading, with each division about equally 
favored as first choice. Grasp of subject and time required appear in a 
number of answers. Many schools have no particular system of grading. 

9. Hozif is the subject of mechanical drawing regarded in your 
schools f (Its relative importance, etc., compared with other subjects). 
While a few answers contained such remarks as "not emphasized", 
"second place", "not regarded highly", most schools reported mechanical 
drawing as having an equal standing with academic subjects. 

10. Is mechanical drawing emphasised as a practical subject or 
as an educational subject? About 53% reported practical, 37% both, 
and only 10% educational. 

11. Teachers — Preparation and Experience — About two-thirds 
of the teachers have had normal school or similar training, one-fourth 
have had college training and less than 10% have had no school training 
for teaching mechanical drawing. Comparatively few teachers have 
had both school training and practical experience. In most schools me- 
chanical drawing is taught in connection with manual training and by 
the same teachers. 

Mechanical Drawing in High Schools 

The answers to the questions which follow were summarized from 
replies received from 66 high schools where mechanical drawing is taught. 
This is not a complete list of the high schools in which mechanical draw- 
ing is taught but is representative. 

List of High Schools : 

Central High Barberton Harrison Twp. High Kirkersville 

Central High Bowling Green Kent Normal High Kent 

McKinley High Canton Lakewood High Lakewood 

North Junior High Canton Lancaster High Lancaster 

Hartwell High ' Cincinnati Lebanon High Lebanon 

Hughes High Cincinnati Central High Lima 

Madisonville High Cincinnati South High Lima 

Woodward High Cincinnati Lyons High Lyons 



12 



City High Coshocton 

East High Cleveland 

East Technical High Cleveland 

Glenville High Cleveland 

Lincoln High Cleveland 

West High Cleveland 

West Technical High Cleveland 

Heights High Cleveland Heights 

Shaw High East Cleveland 

Columbus Trade Columbus 

East High Columbus 

North High Columbus 

South High Columbus 

Parker High Dayton 

Steele High Dayton 

Stivers High Dayton 

Delaware High . Delaware 

Eaton High Eaton 

Elyria High Elyria 

Findlay High Findlay 

Fremont High Fremont 

Geneva High Geneva 

Girard High Girard 

Edward Lee McClain High Greenfield 

Hamilton High Hamilton 



Marion High Marion 

Martins Ferry High Martins Ferry 

Massillon High Massillon 

New Dover High New Dover 

Ruggles High New London 

Newark High Newark 

Portsmouth High Portsmouth 

Prospect High Prospect 

Ravenna Twp. High Ravenna 

Salem High Salem 

Shaker Heights High... Shaker Heights 

Junior High Springfield 

Springfield High Springfield 

St. Marys High St. Marys 

Scott High Toledo 

Waite High Toledo 

Troy High Troy 

Wapakoneta High Wapakoneta 

Warren High Warren 

Westerville High Westerville 

Weston High Weston 

Westview High Westview 

Willoughby High Willoughby 

Rayen High Youngstown 

South High Youngstown 



1. Is viechaniccd drawing taught in your school f As indicated, 
affirmative replies were received from 66 high schools. 

2. Hozv many years f . . . Required or elective? 

Answers varied from one-half year to four years, with 'more than 
half offering- two years. In 25% of the schools it is required, in 75% 
elective. 

3. Hozv many periods per zveekf . . . Length of periods? 
Fifty per cent offer five 45 to 60-minute periods per week ; 25% 

offer two 40 to 60-minute periods per week. The remainder vary from 
the shortest — one 45-minute, — to the longest, — five 120-minute periods 
per week. 

4. Total number of students enrolled in Mechanical Drazmng? 

In the 66 schools listed under question i, there are nearly 6,000 
pupils enrolled in Mechanical Drawing courses. 

5. Is a text hook used by the students? . . . Name of text. 
Most of the schools use some form of printed text book. A number 

of others report that text book and handbooks are available for ref- 
erence. 

6. Are problems given by blueprints? . . . Printed directions? 
. . . Blackboard. 

Many schools use all three methods in presenting problem specifica- 
tions. The blackboard is the commonest method, but a number of in- 



13 

structors have made carefully prepared sheets duplicated by blueprinting 
or mimeographing. 

7. How much work is given from actual objects or models t 
Answers range from "none" to *'all." The average amount is 50% 

of the course, including the drawings made for shopwork. 

8. Indicate briefly the kind of models or objects used. 

Models varied greatly, and included the usual wooden models of 
type solids, manual training projects, furniture, small castings and ma- 
chine parts, and complete machines. 

Collections of models in different schools vary greatly, in numbers, 
kinds and usefulness. Many have only the usual wooden type solids, 
others have joints and manual training projects, including furniture. 
Still others have castings, sectional machine parts and complete machines. 
Models once acquired, it would seem, are never discarded, and antique 
and obsolete forms of machine tool parts and the like are often seen in 
these collections. 

9. Is the work standard for all your schools? 

This question referred to cities having more than one school, and 
the replies showed that in very few cities is the work standardized. 

10. Who prepares or outlines the course? 

Usually the teacher. In some cases the manual training supervisor. 
In one instance, a committee of teachers. In some states syllabi are 
prepared by the State Superintendent or by the University of the State. 
These unify the work of the State while allowing individual initiative 
and freedom. 

11. Are class lectures given? 

Eighty per cent report "yes". These are, however, in the majority 
of cases, simply class explanations given in the ^rawing room. 

12. Are examinations given? 

Forty-five per cent report "yes". This important question is dis- 
cussed later in this bulletin. 

13. To what extent is drawing correlated with shopwork? 

In some schools there is no attempt at correlation. In others draw- 
ings are made for everything made in the shops. 

There is a general tendency to correlate simple shop projects and 
drawing. 

14. What difficulties are encountered in correlating shopwork and 
drawing? 

The majority find no especial difficulties. The principal report of 
trouble is in the varying sequence of work and that too close correlation 
has the effect of breaking up the continuity of the drawing course. 

15. What methods are used to keep the class together? 

It is found that generally no attempt is made to hold a class to- 
gether. Instruction is individual and the pupil works on a drawing until 
it is finished. In a few schools, however, the entire class starts a prob- 



14 

iem at the same time, a time limit is set for its completion, and points are 
deducted for lateness. This emphasizes the important point often over- 
looked in school work that in commercial drafting both accuracy and 
speed are demanded, and that either is worth little without the other. 

i6. How do you provide for the slow thinkers? 

The general report is that they are given simpler problems and 
more individual attention. One report says "we give them time to think." 

The increased individual attention should be directed not only to- 
ward helping the student over, but toward speeding up what in many 
cases may be only chronic physical or mental laziness. 

17. How do you provide for the brighter hoys? 

In almost every case by extra work and harder problems. The 
bright boy enjoys the distinction. 

18. What method of grading drawings is used? 

In this there is no uniformity. Some use a letter system, others a 
numerical system. Some drawings are not graded at all. 

19. Do you use ''key" sheetst 
Practically none were reported. 

20. Will you furnish an outline of the drawing courses as given 
in your schools? 

21. Will you send an average set of students' drazvings in illustra- 
tion of your course? 

While these two requests were not fully complied with in a number 
of instances, enough have been seen to indicate a wide divergence, not 
only in the order and method of presenting the various divisions of the 
subject, but also in the quality of work required, or accepted, from 
pupils. Various degrees of completeness in the matter of checking were 
noted, some drawings having been examined carefully and all points 
needing attention marked, while some apparently had not been consid- 
ered as to correctness of detail. 

22. Is the course differentiated or specialised? . . . In what year? 
Special courses are given in comparatively few schools. In some 

the subject is required as a five-period course for manual training and 
elective as a two-period course for others. Separate courses in machine 
drawing, mechanism drawing, sheet metal pattern drawing, and archi- 
tectural drawing were listed among the answers received. In a number 
of schools sketches and drawings for a complete machine as a gas engine 
or speed lathe constituted a course in machine drawing. 

23. What kind of lettering is taught and hozv much time is devoted 
to it? 

It is interesting to note the trend of improvement in the styles of 
lettering used. All schools reporting are using free-hand single-stroke 
letters. 

No summary as to the amount of time spent can be gained from the 
answers, but the approved method of teaching is to distribute lettering 



15 

practice in short assignments through most of the first year, and its ap- 
plications throughout the course. 

24. Does the student or the school furnish the drawing instru- 
ments f . . . Other materials f . . . Text hooks? 

Drawing instruments are furnished by about 50% of the schools, 
other materials by about 40% of the schools. In most schools where 
text books are used, the pupils are required to purchase them. 

25. About what priced instruments are specified? . . . (Cost in 
normal times.) 

The answers to this question varied in general from $3.00 to $10.00. 
In one school $20.00 instruments are used. 

26. What does the set include? 

In most cases the set included, compasses, dividers, ruling pen, bow 
pencil, bow dividers and bow pen. 

27. What kind of paper is used? . . . Sise of finished sheet? 
The practice of most schools is to use a good grade of paper of 

either white or cream. There has been an upward tendency over the 
practice of a few years ago, in spite of advanced prices. 

Sizes of finished sheets ranged from 7'' x 10'' to 2i}4" x 293^'', 
with the greater number seeming to favor a size in the neighborhood of 
ii"xi5". 

28. Are blueprint frames available for students' use? 

In about two-thirds of the schools blueprint frames are used. A 
few schools reported the use of electric blueprinting machines. One 
school built a continuous electric machine in its manual training de- 
partment. 

29. Does the mechanical drawing teacher give whole time to the 
subject? . . . If not, what other subjects does he teach? 

Thirty-one per cent of the teachers reported as teaching mechanical 
drawing devote their whole time to the subject. Forty per cent are 
teaching some form of mannual training or shopwork, and twenty- 
nine per cent are teaching other branches, including American history, 
art, chemistry, domestic art, mathematics, physics and science. 

It is noticeable that practically all the mechanical drawing in Ohio 
is now taught by men. 

30. What is the preparation of the drawing teacher? 
(Please answer for each teacher.) 

Practically all the teachers in Ohio have a record of some school 
or college training, ranging from four years of University or technical 
school to correspondence school or a few weeks of summer school work. 
Thirty-five per cent have had practical drafting room experience, ranging 
from one to twenty-five years. Twenty per cent more have had other 
industrial experience, the remainder have had no experience other than 
teaching. 



i6 

31. What do you consider as the object of mechmiical drawing in 
yowr school? 

An interesting variety of answers was received on this question. 
Broadly they may be divided into two groups, one seeing the direct use 
of the subject, the other seeing it in its larger aspect and truer value. 
Some typical answers are appended. 

"To learn to read a drawing and to become draftsmen." 

"To make drawings of simple parts." 

"To read blueprints." 

"To make draftsmen." 

"To get as much college credit as possible." 

"To train for accuracy." 

"To learn the graphic language." 

"I consider it an important part of secondary education. It strength- 
ens the imagination, forms habits of accuracy and careful observations." 

"This forms a part of their general education. We don't aim in 
our schools to turn out tradesmen as yet." 

32. How well is the object attained? 

Curiously, no matter what the object was, practically all agreed that 
it was well attained. 

33. What is the status of drawnng in comparison with otiwr sub- 
jects? 

Most reports were that the work was on an equality with other sub- 
jects. In the manual training high school drawing is looked upon as 
an important subject and the department has the same ranking as other 
departments. In some schools which have no manual training courses, 
the course in mechanical drawing its not understood nor appreciated 
by the teachers of other subjects. 

34. What proportion of the students who finish the mecha/nical 
drawing course, go to college or higher technical schools? 

35. Of the proportion who go to such schools wliat per cent re- 
ceive college credit? 

The majority of the schools appeared to have no records of the 
important information necessary to answer these two questions. Those 
reporting indicated that an average of about one-third of their pupils 
continued their studies in higher technical schools. All of these are 
allowed entrance credit, and a few reported that advanced credit was 
given for high school drawing. 

Mechanical Drawing in the Colleges and Universities 

The questions which follow were submitted to over 30 colleges and 
universities in the State of Ohio as listed. This is practically a com- 
plete list of institutions of college rank. The first two questions con- 
cerned the name of the institution and the head of the department of 
drawing. Answers to the other questions are here given in general 



17 

terms. Discussion of results, together with notes and suggestions, will 
be found in later sections of this study. 

3. Is mechanical drawing taught in your institution t 
Twenty-five of the thirty schools listed answered "yes." This is 

83^ per cent. 

4. How many years 1^ . . . Required or elective f 

One year 25 schools 

Two years 11 schools 

Three years 6 schools 

In a few schools drawing is taught four years. 

Required in five schools. 

Required and elective in five schools. 

Elective in fifteen schools. 

5. How mmiy periods per week? . . . Length of period? 
Either two or three periods per week with length of periods of 

2 or 3 hours. About 50% of the schools give 6 hours per week, 35% 
give 4 hours per week, and 15% give 8 hours per week. 

6. Total number of students enrolled in all courses in mechanical 
or technical drawing. 

The total as reported for 25 colleges is tabulated below for the first 
half year: 

First year 1669 

Second year 750 

Third year 432 

Total 2851 

7. What is the official title of the department? 

Where mechanical drawing is not taught in a separate department, 
it is handled by various departments as follows : 

Art, Applied Mathematics, Physics, Civil Engineering, Mechanical 
Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Mining Engineering. 

Titles given for departments are as follows : 

Manual Training Department. 

Engineering Drawing. 

Mechanical Drawing. 

Drawing Department. 

Natural Science and Mechanical Drawing. 

Department of Mechanical Drawing and Descriptive Geometry. 

Department of Engineering. 

Industrial Education. 

8. Is all drawing taught by above department? Please explain and 
give list of courses. 

In some schools drawing after the first year is taught in other de- 
partments by the teachers of mechanical engineering, electrical engineer- 
ing, etc. 



9. How is the subject of mechanical drawing first presented? 
Please check. 

(a) Use of instruments — -line exercise. 

(b) Freehand sketching from models. 

(c) Freehand orthographic views from pictures. 

(d) Freehand orthographic views from copies. 

(e) Mechanical drawings from models. 

(f) Theory of projection. 

(g) Orthographic from pictures. 

If a book is used please give name of book and pages which cover 
first work. 

The answers to this question were not all definite but a general idea 
of the relative preference may be noted by referring to question No. 12. 

10. Is drawing correlated with other subjects? The answers to 
this question indicated that there was some attempt at correlation in about 
one-half of the schools. 

11. What method of grading drawings is used? 

There appears to be little uniformity in methods of grading draw- 
ings. In some schools the drawings are not graded until the end of the 
course. Accuracy, neatness and speed are the considerations in most 
schools. Definite grades are given in some schools but in others little 
attention is apparently given to this important matter. 

Accuracy and neatness are each given first place in about the same 
number of schools. Speed is included as the third consideration in most 
cases. 

12. What subjects are included in your first course in m^echanical 
drawing? Please indicate by num^bers. 

Geometrical Drawing. 
Lettering. 

Freehand Sketching. 
Inking Exercises. 
Orthographic Projection. 

The order in which the various subjects are given in different schools 
is indicated in the table. Thus eight schools give geometrical construc- 
tions first, while only three start with inking exercises. Apparently 
geometrical constructions are still favorites for the first work in me- 
chanical drawing. Lettering is increasing in importance and inking is 
being placed later. Curiously orthographic projection predominates in 
fourth place. 

Table showing number of schools which prefer each subject in the 
order given: 



19 



Order of Preference 



Name of Subject 



Geometrical Drawing . . 

Lettering 

Freehand Sketching . . . 

Inking Exercises 

Orthographic Projection 



13. Indicate briefly the scope of, your courses in Machine Drawing, 
Do you use a text hook? . . . Name of text . . . 

About one-third the schools listed give a course in machine drawing, 
using a text book with other books for reference. French's "Engineer- 
ing Drawing" is the generally accepted text book. 

14. Do you give college credit for Mechanical Drawing done in 
high schools or other preparatory schools? If so, under what conditions? 

About one-third of the colleges give some college credit for me- 
chanical drawing done in high schools. Presentation of drawings of sat- 
isfactory quality or examination is required. 

15. Do you give special courses in fnechanical drawing for training 
teachers of this subject? 

Only three schools answered ''yes" to this question. 

16. Are any courses in Mechanical Drawing given in your College 
of Education? . . . What texts are used? 

Courses in mechanical drawing are offered in the College or De- 
partment of Education in six schools. In three of these the courses are 
the same as for other students. 

17. What size of finished sheet do you use? 

Twenty-six different sizes of drawing paper were specified as listed : 



84X11 


11X15 


18X19 


18X28 


84X12 


11X16 


14X17 


19X22 


9X12 


12X15 


14X18 


19X24 


9X13 


12X16 


14X204 


20X34 


10X12 


12X17 


15X20 


22X30 


10X13 


12X18 


15X22 




10X14 


12X19 


18X24 





18. How many teachers give their zvhole time to teaching drawing? 
Haw many part time? 

Seventeen teachers give full time and something more than twice 
that number give part time to teaching mechanical drawing. 

19. Teachers and their preparation. 

About 66% of the teachers are college graduates. About 50% have 
had practical experience. About 27% have had some college training. 
The following table gives some statistics for the schools listed : 



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22 



SECTION III 
Content and Character of Courses 



A study of the survey as given in Section II cannot fail to impress 
one with the fact that mechanical drawing is indeed a fundamental sub- 
ject for study in the State of Ohio. Many variations in the consideration 
which it receives in the dilterent schools will be noted, together with the 
fact that it seems to derive its chief value from its utility — its practical 
applications. 

Some discussion of the results of the survey, together with notes 
and suggestions or comments, are included in this section. 

Mechanical Drawing: Essentially mechanical drawing is the prac- 
tical appHcation of descriptive geometry. More particularly it is the 
art of visual description by means of hues and figures placed on a sheet 
of paper in such a way that the shape and size of machines, buildings, 
etc., are accurately defined. 

As taught mechanical drawing may mean any one of a number of 
things, as : — 

(a) The drawing of a few lines on brown paper with pencil and 
straight edge, 

(b) The drawing of geometrical constructions. 

(c) The copying of drawings. 

(d) Making views of a few simple objects. 

(e) A complete course in the theory of drawing including ortho- 
graphic projection, pictorial drawing, intersections, developments, etc. 

(f) The study and making of finished technical drawings of the 
highest excellence. 

In the grade school, mechanical drawing is taught as part of the 
manual training course and much of the work has to do with the kinds 
of things which are made in the shops. Such drawing is best taught 
without presenting the theory of orthographic projection. An explana- 
tion of the views by direct comparison with the object and by an ex- 
amination of simple drawings is probably the most logical and easily 
practiced method of introducing mechanical drawing. 

In the high schools the conception of drawing as a language can be 
brought out and some of the fundamental laws of projection can be 
explained. The ability to think in three dimensions and to visualize 
both shape and size can be developed. 

A certain amount of geometrical constructions drawn very ac- 
curately and paralleled with the usual draftsman's methods are useful 
in developing accuracy and an understanding of how to locate lines, 
arcs, etc., when constructing views. Lettering is a part of all good high 
school courses in drawing. In some high schools elementary architec- 
tural and machine drawing are taught. These studies must not be too 



n 

ambitious if the student is to be held responsible for a thorough under- 
standing of every drawing and for every line on every drawing. Such 
subjects should not be attempted unless the teacher has had real ex- 
perience in architectural or mechanical work. Mere copying or drawings 
not thoroughly checked give the student a false idea of the value of 
drawing. 

• The development of surfaces and intersections can be taught for 
simple plane and curved surfaces but general rather than special methods 
of solution should be used. * 

Practical problems should be carefully selected for educational 
value. Such problems are to be encouraged, as they create an interest 
for the student. It is necessary for the teacher to point out the relation 
between such drawings and the theory of projection, so that the student 
may learn to "compose" as well as to "read" and "write" the graphic 
language. 

In the colleges and universities, the first course in mechanical draw- 
ing is pretty well standardized, due to the use of Professor French's 
"Engineering Drawing." Such courses include, Use of Instruments, 
Geometrical Drawing, Lettering and Orthographic Projection. Some- 
times included and sometimes following are intersections, developments, 
freehand sketching, and pictorial drawing. Descriptive Geometry is gen- 
erally a separate course and precedes a course in Machine Drawing. 
Courses in Machine Drawing seem to be less definitely organized and 
not as generally given as might be desirable. 

Freehand Sketchings — Freehand sketching has been defined as the 
language of the designer and executive engineer. It is the quickest 
means of making engineering thoughts visible. Sketching is simply me- 
chanical drawing without instruments. Accurate thinking requires the 
ability to sketch accurately. Accurate sketches lead to accurate thinking. 
For making engineering notes, sketches are convenient, accurate, and 
quickly made. 

Clean cut single width lines, carefully judged proportions, and exact- 
ness in detail are fundamental requirements for good sketches. Freehand 
sketching practice cannot be given too soon in any course in drawing 
and should be in constant use as an aid in making and reading mechani- 
cal drawings as well as a substitute for them. Every sketch should be 
sufficiently well done to make it an accurate record, should it have to 
be referred to at a later date. 

Lettering 

There is probably no one subject connected with mechanical draw- 
ing offering a wider range of possibilities than lettering. The number 
of people who recognize and appreciate good lettering and its value in 
both engineering and every day life, is constantly increasing. 



24 

The importance of good lettering is generally realized but it is not 
always given the attention necessary to develop proficiency. In a num- 
ber of schools short exercises in lettering are given at frequent periods 
and these exercises are carefully criticized. There are many advantages 
in such courses. Continual practice over an extended period of time is 
essential to the acquirement of facility in the art of lettering. If letter- 
ing is igiven as a separate subject and bunched in a short space of time, 
a good deal of the permanent value is lost, for while intensive practice 
is necessary, that practice must b^ sustained if the ability to letter well 
is to be retained after the instruction ceases. If lettering is given in 
connection with the regular mechanical drawing work, it should not be 
given all at one time. Furthermore, a certain amount of lettering should 
be required on all drawings. It should be remembered that the en- 
gineer's figures are a very important part of lettering. Perfectly clear 
numbers are absolutely essential. Home exercises in lettering can be 
made valuable but they should receive careful criticism. There are many 
ways of going about the teaching of lettering, but one of the essentials 
of all the ways is to provide good examples of the letters, clearly and 
well made, and with the proportions and peculiarities definitely shown. 
This requires large examples of the various letters and their component 
parts, together with examples of spacing and estimating. "Learn by 
doing" is a favorite motto with many people, and is sometimes adopted 
for the teaching of lettering. A sample alphabet of small size is placed 
before the student, and he is told to copy it, and to continue copying 
until he can imitate the sample. Not knowing the characteristics of the 
various letters, the student enters upon a long practice and is often dis- 
couraged before he overcomes the difficulties and learns from the teacher 
called "experience". 

Dismissing this method, there are a number of excellent systems 
which may be adopted. First, to start upon the letters of the single 
stroke commercial Gothic, practicing them in each of the family groups, 
taking the letters composed of vertical and horizontal lines first, then 
composing them into words, then take the groups composed of letters 
with vertical, horizontal, and inclined letters and combine them into 
words with letters from the preceding group, and finally include the 
letters composed of curves. Each group should be carefully mastered 
before proceeding with the following one. This method is well adapted 
to secondary school work. 

Another system is to start with practice in spacing, using the ele- 
ments of the letters for this purpose, and attaining a facility in the con- 
trol of the pencil and ability to draw a line at any place and in any di- 
rection. The spacing of points, and the joining of them with lines gives 
valuable practice in preparing to make the letters. Leading from the 
practice of the elements, these elements may be combined to form let- 
ters, in the forming of which the characteristics of each letter can be 
studied. 



25 

Either of the above systems may be worked in two ways, first, start- 
ing with large sizes, from ^" to ^" high and working down to small 
sizes, or the work may be started directly with the small size (^" to 

3-i6")- 

Following the commercial Gothic letters, the lower case letters should 
be taken up in detail in a similar manner. Some teachers start lettering 
using so-called practice sheets, which the student uses with the knowl- 
edge that they will not be collected, or if collected, they will not be 
graded. He is told to go ahead and practice, without regard particu- 
larly, to the final appearance of the sheet. 

Another method is to insist upon the most careful work from the 
first sheet, collecting and grading it as a formal exercise. Any of the 
methods can be made to give good results but much depends upon the 
manner in which they are handled by the teacher and upon the teacher's 
patience. 

One of the greatest difficulties which has to be overcome is the ten- 
dency of the beginner to hurry the preliminary work in order to get at 
the real lettering. This often results in the student failing to learn the 
shapes of the letters, in not getting the proper training in judging spaces 
with the eye, and in improper stroking of the letters and handling of the 
pen and pencil. One method of overcoming this is by counting. The 
teacher can lay out the form of the sheet on the blackboard, and starting 
with the exercise count a number for each line drawn, requiring all stu- 
dents to draw at the same time. For instance, in drawing perpendicular 
lines, the teacher would count one, and draw the first line, estimate a 
space and count again for the second line, resting when a few lines 
or letters have been made, comparing the results and criticising the 
students' work, then proceed. In this way the entire class can be kept 
together, and proper attention can be required for each line. 

Lettering may be taught by using the pencil first, until the entire al- 
phabet is completed, or by following each separate exercise and letter 
with the use of the pen. Large letters should be made in pencil first, 
very lightly, and then inked. Small letters when made with the pen 
should be made directly in ink — not penciled and then inked. 

Machine Drawing: — The name "machine drawing" is here used 
because it is the one commonly adopted for advanced courses in me- 
chanical drawing. That it does not accurately describe the purpose and 
scope of such courses may be admitted. 

The writer has said the "machine drawing may be considered as: 

(a) A final stage of a course in mechanical drawing. 

(b) A course in practical drafting. 

(c) A course for the correlation of drawing and engineering. 

(d) A transition course between mechanical drawing and machine 
design. 

(c) An introductory or first course in machine design." 



26 

The importance of such a course seems to be recognized but as yet 
there is Uttle uniformity in content or method. Such a course ought to 
be planned to develop an understanding of the relation of drawing and 
engineering. Such courses should analyze the structure of working 
drawings, should apply the idiomatic expressions common to the graphic 
language, should illustrate the applications and treatment of drawing 
for ordinary engineering purposes, and should include a thorough study 
of size specification. 

Problems, Exercises and Studies 

The value of a course in drawing depends upon the proper selection 
of problems and the methods of presenting the problems. In this the 
teacher must be alive to the value of the subject and enthused with the 
possibilities which it holds. The use of the same problems year after 
year is sure to take the Hfe and interest from the work, both for the 
student and the teacher. New problems and new ways of presenting 
old problems are essential. 

The source and selection of problems is a question which is certain 
to arise. If a book is used, it will supply many problems which can be 
used as presented, which can be changed, and which will suggest new 
problems. Other books and references are valuable sources. Problems 
from the wood and metal shops furnish an almost unlimited supply. 
Many things which are to be made in the shops can be sketched and 
drawn. Such subjects are real and create interest. Objects which are 
more or less familiar are always good subjects, especially at the begin- 
ning of the course. Trade papers, engineering and vocational periodicals, 
and even newspapers often furnish ideas for problems. In this the ad- 
vertisements should not be overlooked. Commercial blueprints obtained 
from shops and factories are a still further field from which to draw. 
The makeup of problems for elementary drawing is often more difficult 
than for advanced or machine drawing. Each problem should teach 
something, but several new points should not be included in a single 
problem. All problems should be "learn something" problems, as dis- 
tinguished from "keep busy" problems. Large collections of problems 
on a single sheet should be avoided, as interest wanes before the sheet is 
completed. All problems should be definite, especially elementary prob- 
lems. They should all be solved completely and accurately, and by ap- 
proved methods. Geometrical problems are valuable for teaching ac- 
curacy. They should be solved in pencil only, and with extremely deli- 
cate lines, and with very definite results. Such geometrical constructions 
as are generally used should be taught in connection with problems where 
they occur. A bolt head involves a hexagon, or a cylinder head with 
six holes gives the same problem — a hexagonal top for a small table, 
or other applications may be taught of. The copying of a figure — to 
the same scale, or enlarged, involves the construction of triangles. 



27 

Tangent arcs occur on almost all machine parts. An eliptical table top 
' — a gland — a boiler hand hole or a man hole use ellipses. 

The use of instruments may be taught by set exercises, or by mak- 
ing drawings of objects which involve the same practices. Orthographic 
projection should receive especially careful treatment, and should be 
logically developed. There are several points which should be consid- 
ered — the problems should be progressive, each a little more involved 
than the previous one. Problems should include objects requiring two, 
three, four or more views. The side views should be placed either at 
the right or left, and opposite either the front or top views. The first 
problems are to fix the relations of the views, and a number of objects 
should be drawn for this purpose. Dotted lines and sections should be 
introduced early in the course. Objects with surfaces parallel to the 
planes of projection should be taken first, then with faces parallel but 
at varying distances, then objects having surfaces at angles to one plane, 
to both planes, etc. All objects should NOT be symmetrical. 

In the survey of mechanical drawing previously referred to it is 
stated that: 

"A good problem should: 

(i) Illustrate primarily one important feature of the language 
of drawing, a feature which will recur incidentally on subsequent 
drawings. 

(2) Take its place in the scale of difficulty. 

(3) Contain a minimum of repeated detail. 

(4) Be an object with whose form, use or place, the ordinary boy 
would be familiar. 

(5) Not be obsolete in design." 

These requirements will, in general, apply to almost any course in 
mechanical drawing, and with some modification to advanced courses. 

The manner in which problems are presented should have careful 
attention to insure development of the points to be taught. Models, 
pictorial views, incomplete or missing views, and verbal descriptions are 
some of the methods used. Whatever the method, the requirements should 
be definitely stated. 

At the Ohio State University specification sheets and mimeographed 
notes are freely used to define problems and to amplify the instruction 
as given by lectures and text-book study. 

Many schools use blue prints, printed notes, mimeographed notes 
and drawing layouts. At Case School of Applied Science the specifications 
for the course are prepared by Professor Comstock and mimeographed 
so that the student has an outline of the work to be done. 

At Miami University carefully prepared outlines of the courses are 
mimeographed. Definite assignments are made so that the student must 
read the texts in preparation for class work and drawing room work. 
This method is to be commended, as it insures a thorough understanding . 



28 

of the subject and informs the student of just what is required. A part 
of a page of the "Manual" prepared by Prof. Whitcomb of Miami Uni- 
versitj; is shown below. 

Principles of Size Description. 

A. Changing orthographic and pictorial projections to working drawing, 
a. General references for this section. 

(1) French, pp. 166-173; 176-177; 315. 

(2) French and Svenson, pp. 51-57; 60-63; 184-191. 
Class work — 1 hour. 

a. Quiz on home readings. 

(1) Discuss the subject of perspective drawing under topics 

developed in the last class period. 

(2) Compare the three systems of pictorial representation which 
you have studied. Which has given you the most difficulty 
in understanding? 

b. Development of the new subject. 

(1) Not only shape but size necessary to make a working 
drawing. 

(2) Value of a knowledge of shop practice to a draftsman. 

(3) The dimensions which are to be placed on a drawing. 

(4) Dimension lines to be drawn first after drawing of object 

completed. See text fig. 351 (3). 

(5) Then find dimensions and put in proper place. 

(6) Conventions used . . . lines, figures, arrows, etc. 

(7) General rules for dimensioning. 

(8) The finish mark. 

(9) Limits and fits. 

c. Assignment and Explanation of drafting work. 
(1) See directions which follow. 

D. Assignment of home work — 2 hours. 

(1) Study text pp. 166-171. 

(2) Give particular attention to the rules for dimensioning (figs. 351- 
357) should be given careful consideration). 

(3) Be prepared to discuss the subject and to reproduce any portion 

of it on blackboard or paper. 
Drafting-room work — 6 hours. 

a. Following the rules for dimensioning, dimension fully the 
projections on sheet No. 6, observing the suggestion given in 
the last paragraph on p. 166. Also indicate the parts which 
are to be "finished." 

b. Using the entire working space of a sheet (this will be No. 14) 
copy to appropriate scale, fig. 353. Turn sheet for drawing 
with longer dimension horizontal and wide margin away from 
you. 

Grade School Mechanical Drawing 

Recognition of the fact that a study is no less valuable because it is 
interesting has made wonderful progress possible in the realm of edu- 
cation. The schoolroom is no longer a place to be feared. Cheerful 
hearts and happy minds make for keener interest and a better education. 

Mechanical drawing is one of the subjects which has a natural in- 
terest for the average boy. The enthusiasm which is present at the be- 
ginning of this subject can well be capitalized and made use of in fur- 
thering the boy's general education — the development of his mind. 
The initial interest should be maintained by starting to make drawings 
of real things, however, simple they may be, and explaining the relation 
of the drawing to the object. The imagination should be stimulated 



^9 

until the drawing pictures the part in space with its three dimensions. 
Drawing from models cannot begin too soon. The grade school may 
seem somewhat early to begin or try to begin to teach a boy to think in 
three dimensions. However the place to begin any subject is at the 
beginning and drawing is no exception to this rule. 

The vision of a bottle of ink and a ruling pen should not be held 
up as the things which make a draftsman. In fact, the use of ink in 
grade school work is of doubtful value. Considerable proficiency in 
penciling should be attained before using ink at whatever age the sub- 
ject is taught. Too often the pen and ink are used as a cure-all for the 
inaccuracies of pencil work. 

The purpose of a course in mechanical drawing in the grade schools 
is the same as for all other courses. This purpose is to educate; to 
train the mind and hand, to develop the individual so that he may enjoy 
life, respect labor either mental or manual, and value citizenship and 
good government. The immediate purpose of a mechanical drawing 
course is to train the pupil in the greatest of all languages, the graphic 
language. To be sure the practical value should not be underrated but 
it should not dominate. Whether a boy is to be a draftsman, a cabinet 
maker or a machinist should not be a factor to decide whether he is to 
study mechanical drawing any more than the expectation of living in 
France or Spain should be the reason for studying those languages. The 
study of geography should not be limited to those who expect to travel 
the world over nor the study of English to those who expect to be 
preachers, and writers and speakers, etc. Drawing in the grades, manual 
arts in the grades, notwithstanding their practical appeal, should be put 
upon the same plane as other subjects and taught to all students. There 
is no reason why mechanical drawing should not be studied by girls as 
well as boys. In fact, girls very often surpass boys in lettering and in 
theoretical drawing. With this in mind teachers should ever have the 
educational value of drawing before them when planning courses for 
grade schols. 

Without going into detail, the contents of a mechanical drawing 
course for grade schools should include, the use of instruments by ap- 
plying them to making drawings of simple objects, training in the use 
of the scale so that accurate measurements can be made, simple lettering 
with plain figures, and the elements of three-view drawing without a 
study of the theory of projection. Neat and carefully made drawings 
with an appreciation of the value of exactness in scale, representation 
and specification should be the aim of grade school courses. 

High School Mechanical Drawing 

Mechanical drawing has come to be recognized as a fundamental 
subject in the high schools where it is taught. In the technical high 



3t> 

schools it is one of the important courses of instruction. As a practical 
course its place is fully established. There is, however, much to be 
desired in the way of a fuller understanding of the true value of me- 
chanical drawing by those who teach it as well as by teachers of cultural 
subjects. "Mechanical drawing, when properly taught, is pre-eminent 
in developing the constructive imagination, the ability to think in three 
dimensions, and to visualize clearly and accurately, an ability which 
every citizen should have, but which unfortunately is possessed by a 
very few." 

The teacher should have the cultural value as well as the practical 
value of mechanical drawing in mind when arranging the content of a 
course. "The use of instruments is simply a means to an end, they are 
used for writing in the graphic language, as the pencil or pen are used 
in writing English, or French. A good 'hand' should be developed, 
starting with the 'alphabet of lines' and carried through 'reading' and 
'writing' graphically. The power of visualization should be developed 
soon after the power of description has been developed. Drawing as 
a means of developing ideas is unsurpassed, but it must be taught in 
a logical manner. Each part of the course must bear a definite relation 
to the other parts. Drawing is an exact mode of expression and re- 
quires exactness of representation and exactness in thought." 

"In considering the language of drawing, the two important things 
in the description of an object are its shape and its size. The natural 
grouping of the elements leads to arrangement in grand divisions or 
parts. 

A. — A study of the instruments, materials, etc., and their uses. 

It should be emphasized that this is preliminary to the study of the 
subject. Good form should be taught at the beginning and constantly 
insisted upon. Problems for this purpose should be selected to bring out 
the possibilities and limitations of the various instruments, tools and 
materials. There are many drawings which can be made with the scale, 
the T-quare and the triangles. The proper use of the scale, the number 
of operations involved, the position and handling of the T-square and 
triangles are questions of good form and are teaching points having 
direct educational value. Lettering should be introduced early in the 
course, with careful criticism of the forms of the letters and their com- 
binations into words. 

B. — A study of the elements of shape definition. 

This is the definition requiring the most careful thought. The 
shape is of course described by projections and here orthographic 
projection must be treated adequately, first as different views, without 
reference to the planes of projection, but followed very soon by the 
demonstration of the third angle. The ability to think in three dimen- 
sions, to get a clear conception of surfaces variously arranged with 
respect to one another and their position in space, presents difiiculties for 



31 

the pupil not always realized by the teacher. The apparent simplicity 
of orthographic projection when applied to a single rectangular block is 
deceptive. For this reason a nice balance of theoretical and practical 
subjects is necessary in order to secure the proper training, although 
the pupils need not know that he is studying theory, and indeed, the 
words orthographic projection need not be used in class at all. 

As to problems for shape study, the progression should be — draw- 
ing from models, from pictorial views, supplying missing views or other 
views and from verbal description. Type solids can be used to a limited 
extent, but real things should predominate. Much of the study of shapes 
may be done by freehand sketches in order to save time. 

The change from the usual two dimensional thinking to space con- 
ception is more radical than generally assumed and particular efforts 
must be exerted to use subjects which will enable the pupil to get away 
from thinking in "the flat." 

A study of shape definition includes the representation and visualiz- 
ing of the elementary solids and their various combinations in natural 
and in out-of-the-ordinary positions; the representing and visualizing of 
invisible parts and a clear understanding of the meaning of such repre- 
sentation; the representation of the interior of objects and combinations 
of objects by use of conventional cutting planes. 

The number and choice of views, as well as their arrangement, 
should be studied and analyzed. Problems should be selected which 
will cover these points and in such a way that there will be an easy 
transition from one to the other until the subject as a whole is worked 
out. 

C. — A study of the elements of size definition. 

There is a certain lack of definiteness in the subject of dimensioning 
which causes it to be neglected as a grand division of mechanical draw- 
ing. It is generally treated by giving a list of rules without a complete 
exposition of the rules and their application. This subject should be 
classified as completely as orthographic projection and problems in di- 
mensioning should be given to illustrate the elements. From the 
sizing of simple objects the problems should lead, to combinations, 
with an orderly procedure of work. The systems of dimensioning should 
be taken up and advantages and disadvantages discussed. Dimensioning 
should be applied to wood, castings, forgings, and sheet metal. At the 
same time the machines used in the industries should be described, and 
the operations which are performed on them with the materials used for 
different purposes, should be explained. This is just as necessary for 
the making of intelligent drawings as for shop courses. 

D. — A study of the application of the preceding divisions to prac- 
tical drafting. 

This involves the presentation of the various kinds of working 
drawings, detail and assembly drawings and their relation to each other. 



32 

The source and path of a set of drawings should be followed out. The 
conventional practices of the drafting room should be explained and 
their uses studied and applied. The reasons for the existence of such 
conventions is a part of this study. 

Intersections, developments, cams, gears and similar position and 
area problems can be taught and understood best after the elements of 
space and size description have been thoroughly mastered. 

An added interest and value in sheet metal pattern drafting can be 
fcad by building paper models from the patterns as worked out in inter- 
section and development problems. 

In preparing a course in mechanical drawing the teacher should 
bear in mind that he is beginning a subject of unlimited scope and should 
seek an outline having as logical and definite a sequence of divisions as 
any other subject. The initial enthusiasm of the pupil should be utilized 
and a feeling of respect for, and appreciation of, the wonderful possi- 
bilities of the graphic language should be developed as early as possible." 

Technical School Mechanicsd Drawing 

In the technical schools, colleges and universities of the State me- 
chanical drawing is taught with a definite aim — its use in the study of 
engineering in school and the later use of engineering knowledge through 
life. In the technical schools, drawing is most nearly appreciated at its 
full value. Courses are carefully planned and the student's acquisition 
of skill and knowledge is carefully supervised. As the language of en- 
gineering its importance is realized. The theory of drawing is thor- 
oughly taught and training in exact thinking is given by courses in 
Descriptive Geometry. Special courses to facilitate the use of drawing, 
present the conventions and idioms of the graphic language which have 
developed in the various industries and branches of engineering and 
architecture. 

The position of mechanical drawing in some schools is weakened 
very much by teaching it as an adjunct to another department. By 
whatever name, the department of graphics or engineering drawing 
should be a separate department. In some schools drawing is handled 
by teachers whose major interest is in other subjects. In other schools 
there is a feeling that each of the degree departments, mechanical, elec- 
trical, etc., should teach drawing to its own students. A full appreciation 
of the subject should accord it the standing to which it is entitled. 

The department of graphics should include mechanism, machine de- 
sign and graphical analysis in order to be complete. Its staff should be 
competent to handle the advanced work arid so be in a position to give 
a thorough grounding in the basic courses in mechanical drawing, de- 
scriptive geometry and machine drawing. 



33 



SECTION IV 

Teaching Mechanical Dra^ring 

The successful teaching of any branch of knowledge requires two 
major interests. First, an interest in the welfare of others, and second, 
an interest in the subject being taught. For these there are no substi- 
tutes. In addition to these interests the teacher should have a sense of 
value so as to properly emphasize the important divisions or parts of his 
course. He must be well grounded in his subject and understand its 
relation to other branches of knowledge and its relation to Hfe. 

The Teacher's Qualifications 

There have probably been more ways of teaching mechanical draw- 
ing than almost any other subject. Not so very long ago almost anyone 
who had handled a few drawing instruments qualified as a teacher of 
drawing and the subject suffered from amateur handling. There may 
be differences of opinion as to the methods of teaching this subject 
and rightly so, for the best method will depend upon the personality of 
the teacher. 

Present day teachers are coming to appreciate the magnitude and use- 
fulness of drawing and, what is more vital, is that they realize the re- 
sponsibility which is theirs in giving the first impressions of drawing to 
those who will make use of it. 

The qualifications of a drawing teacher, as stated in the High 
School Survey previously referred to, may well be quoted as applying 
to all teachers of this subject. "The success or failure of any course is 
in a large degree dependent upon the teacher. In any subject the finest 
results come with a teacher thoroughly imbued with the spirit of his 
work and who has the qualities which enable him to arouse and main- 
tain interest and enthusiasm. In addition to these qualities, ''the teaching 
instinct," the ideal drawing teacher must have as essential qualifications, 
a thorough grounding in both the theory and teaching methods of his 
subject, and experience in the practical use of it. This combination is 
comparatively scarce and such a man cannot be had for the usual 
salary paid to ordinary teachers of classical subjects. 

Pedagogically, this subject of graphics is one of the most difficult 
of all subjects to handle, on account of the varying powers of con- 
structive imagination among students of equal mental ability. 

Two general classes of men are found as instructors in drawing, 
first, the practical man taken from the shops, second, the man from 
college, technical school or teachers' college. The practical man may 
not have, and often does not have, any teaching ability, and the college 
man may not have had any practical experience in the actual use of his 



34 

subject. The man with school training only should be required to get 
out into commercial drafting work in the summer, and the shop trained 
man to go to a summer school to learn methods of presentation and the 
pedagogy of his subject." 

The teacher of mechanical drawing must have infinite patience in 
presenting and explaining his subject to the class and to the individual. 
He must be able to analyze the difficulties which confront the student. 
He must be able to tell when a student really understands a principle 
or its application. He must be skillful in handHng the draftsman's 
tools. He must understand the relation of his subject to other studies 
and to its use in the industries. He must know the educational possi- 
bilities of the graphic language. He should have a well rounded, gen- 
eral education and an appreciation of the value of other courses of study 
in the curriculum. 

The Status of Mechanical Drawing 

What is best in education for the people of a country or of an age, 
cannot be settled for all time. The needs change and with them, the 
means of education, subjects studied and methods of study. Tradition 
plays an important part in education. Educators often are possessed 
with the fear of appearing radical, and in this open themselves to com- 
parison with the Chinese ancestor worship. There is no dispute with 
those who hold the study of language and literature to be the main 
element in instruction. The important place which it occupies is secure. 
At various times there have been those who have exalted some partic- 
ular department of knowledge and decried others. Mathematics and 
scientific studies have not yet been accorded an equal rank educationally 
with literary and purely cultural subjects. The relative worth of dif- 
ferent subjects of study cannot, should not be settled upon an arbitrary 
standard, yet there are people who hold opinions that this study or that 
study is not educational and is unworthy of ones' time and energ}^ 

True education must supply man's present needs. These needs are 
not alone physical but mental, esthetic, and rehgious. There are higher 
needs and lower needs. Training of the mind alone or of the hands 
alone is not education. We need some studies which do one, some which 
do the other and some which do both. This last important class is where 
mechanical drawing belongs. It is one of the comparatively few subjects 
which develops the ability to think, the ability to see. the ability to im- 
agine and the ability to do. 

This, then, is the status which mechanical drawing should occupy. 
Unfortunately, it has not reached this position as yet. A true apprecia- 
tion, a thorough knowledge and understanding and a real respect upon 
the part of the teacher will do much to place the subject where it belongs. 



35 



Correlation with Other Subjects 

Illustration and graphic analysis are so widely applicable to the study 
of almost any department of knowledge that the possibilities of corre- 
lation of drawing and other subjects are numerous. While drawing is 
the language of engineering and has a great value in this one use, it 
must not be thought of as less important educationally than the acquisi- 
tions of knowledge or the accomplishments which it makes possible. 

The most usual correlation is that of drawing and shopwork. In 
the grade schools there is danger of making the drawing subordinate to 
shopwork. The drawing then loses mosts of its educational value. A 
real understanding of drawing -cannot be taught where the course con- 
sists of making drawings of things to be made in the shop without addi- 
tional instruction and the application of principles to other objects. The 
objects drawn must be such as will teach fundamentals, maintain interest, 
and develop the imagination. Drawings made for or in the shop should 
be required to attain the same standards of neatness, accuracy and com- 
pleteness as those made in the drawing classes. There should be cor- 
relation of effort by the shop and drawing teachers. 

Other studies which readily lend themselves to correlation with 
drawing are art, physics, and the natural sciences, mathematics, and 
English. The use of sketches and drawings as a part of other courses 
greatly increase the interest of the student and helps him to obtain a 
better understanding of all his studies. The English used on drawings 
in the form of notes and specifications, descriptions of graphical methods, 
composition of titles, meanings of words and names of parts and 
processes — all of these should receive consideration from the English 
Department. 

Geometrical constructions, graphical solutions, curve, plotting, etc., 
should be analyzed, and studied on both the mathematical and graphical 
basis. 

Not only interest but a quicker understanding and a keener intellect 
are served by the correlation of subjects. Drawing should be thought of 
in very much the same light as Enghsh, important in itself but necessary 
for the study and understanding of all other, branches of knowledge. 

Inter-relation of Grade Schools, High Schools and Colleges 

The inter-relation of the grade schools, high schools, and colleges 
should be recognized. In each division of the educational system there 
should be a rather definite policy as to purpose, content and presentation, 
for the subject of mechanical drawing. The grade school teacher should 
have a good knowledge of the work which is to follow in the high school. 
He can then shape his course so that it will serve as an introduction to 
the succeeding courses. This can be done without sacrificing his own 



36 

needs of mechanical drawing for use in connection with shopwork or as 
an educational study. 

The high school teacher should inform himself of what is being done 
in the grade schools and in the technical schools and colleges. He should 
seek to ascertain their needs and the reasons which underhe the choice 
of subjects. He should try to formulate the relation of his course to the 
others and adjust it where possible. 

The college teacher should learn the viewpoint of the high school 
teacher and should co-operate with him. There should be recognition of 
good work done in the high school. The college teacher should not ex- 
pect too much from the boy who has had drawing in the high school, 
but he should not place too low a value upon what has been well done. 
High school teachers are very willing to co-operate if they can under- 
stand where they can work to advantage. It should be possible to tell 
the high school teacher definitely what their boys may expect upon enter- 
ing college. However, as stated in the bulletin by French and Svensen, 
college credit or preparation for college, should not be the primary ob- 
ject of the high school course. "The work should be self-contained and 
planned rather for the 75 to 90% of boys who do not go to college, than 
for the smaller percentage who have that opportunity. This course, well 
and logically arranged with an appreciation of the real value of the sub- 
ject, will be the best preparation for the prospective college student. 
* * * A high standard of execution and accuracy should be insisted 
upon in the high school, good form in the handHng of the tools and an 
understanding of the common geometrical constructions, together with 
their use in applied drawing should be taught. Lettering is another weak 
point with the average boy. The difficulties of teaching this subject are 
not to be underestimated, but a certain degree of proficiency can be 
attained. 

These points are, as before stated, just as necessary and valuable 
for the boy going into the industries as for those who go to college. 
Rather than attempt to cover too much, it is better to teach the elements 
thoroughly." 

The Use of Text-books, Notes and Blue Prints 

There has at times been a disposition upon the part of some teachers 
of drawing to look upon the use of a text-book as a reflection upon their 
knowledge of the subject and their ability to teach it. Just why this is 
so is hard to understand. No one thinks less of the mathematics teacher 
for using a text-book. He could undoubtedly teach without one, but 
the number of students efficiently handled would be very small. What 
is true of mathematics and other subjects is just as true of drawing. 
Text-books should be used as an aid, not as a substitute for teacher. As 
stated in the High School Report: 

"With the conception that drawing is a real language, a subject with 



37 

cultural value, to be studied and taught in the same way as other subjects, 
there seems to be little argument as to the desirability of using a suitable 
text-book with the class. No one probably would advocate teaching al- 
gebra or Latin by giving out notes, yet in many instances drawing is 
taught using only a set of blue-printed problems, with no text or refer- 
ence books. However well the teacher may be able to present his prob- 
lems and bring out the teaching points by lecture and individual instruc- 
tion, the fact remains that the pupil cannot absorb and retain them all. 
Much valuable time used in repeating instructions can be saved by the 
assignment of study and reference work from the text-book. The pupil 
who has been absent is not left hopelessly behind if a text-book assign- 
ment covering the work missed is given him. The teacher's efficiency is 
greatly increased. 

A text-book should be more than a collection of problems. It should 
present the subject matter in a clear, orderly and logical arrangement of 
the divisions, explaining why each rule or custom is made, and illustrating 
with examples representing good modern practice." 

The selection of a text-book is an important matter and should re- 
ceive the attention which it deserves. A book should be examined with 
the idea of finding out what it can be used for. Is it easy to read and 
understand? Is there too much. or too little detail? Does it start at 
the beginning and take up the subject so that its use can be seen, is it 
dry and theoretical, or is it merely a statement of facts? Is it exact 
without being too lengthy or is it too brief for the average student? 
Does it contain what is essential for an average course or does it cover 
too many subjects? Does it include too much matter that is little used? 
Is it "scattering" or "to the point" ? Is it a help to the teacher or does it 
attempt to take the teacher's place? Does it allow the student to think 
or is all the thinking done? Does it teach real present-day practice? 
Does it contain problems which are conveniently arranged for use? Do 
the problems fit the text? Does it contain the "why" as well as the "how" 
of the subject? Is it a book for the student to keep after he finishes the 
course ? 

For the grade school the book should not try to teach too many 
things. Probably one of the best is Bennett's "Grammar Grade Problems 
in Mechanical Drawing." 

For the high school there are a number of books available. It is well 
for the teacher to own several of them. Different treatments can be 
illustrated by Anthony's "Mechanical Drawing", Babbitt's "Working 
Drawings", and French and Svensen's "Mechanical Drawing for High 
Schools". 

A comprehensive treatment of Engineering Drawing is French's "A 
Manual of Engineering Drawing", which includes mechanical drawing, 
working drawings and sketches, structural, architectural and topograph- 
ical drawing. Other books are listed under a later heading. 



38 

Notes and blueprints form an important part of the instruction in 
many drawing courses. No book, however complete, can be perfectly 
suited to all requirements. For this reason additional notes and refer- 
ences, co-ordinated with the text-book serve to extend its usefulness. 

Actual shop blueprints carefully selected to illustrate the principles 
set forth in the text, help to maintain interest and increase the range of 
problems. 

Recitations and Examinations 

Mechanical drawing is primarily a laboratory subject so far as the 
making of drawings is concerned. As such it brings the teacher into 
intimate contact with the student, providing that classes are kept small. 
With large classes, recitations and examinations in mechanical drawing 
are extremely desirable. Home work based upon an assigned lesson in 
the text should be followed by recitations and blackboard work. 

Pupils in the grades, and often college students, can make drawngs 
when aided by models and partial views, for rather complex devices, but 
are unable to read the same type of drawing unaided. Pictorial sketches, 
either perspective or isometric, serve as a very useful means of testing 
the student's power of visualization. The student's descriptive power is 
increased when he has to describe methods and principles in words as 
well as by making drawings. 

Tests and final examinations in mechanical drawing are just as nec- 
essary as for other subjects. Tests serve to bring out the points which 
are not understood, to indicate the degree of confidence possessed by 
the student, and show his speed in thinking and working. The necessity 
of reviewing furnishes a means of clearing up many doubtful ideas. The 
writer believes that short tests should be given very frequently rather 
than one or two long examinations. 

Examination questions should be designed to bring out the desired 
information with the least amount of drawing. They should be very 
definite as to the requirements. They should not be involved or "catchy". 
They should be designed so that the solution and answer can be easily 
seen and checked. Problems can often be stated so that the answers can 
be sketched freehand. When duplicating machines are available, the 
problems can be stated and partial views given, together with other in- 
formation to facilitate the student's work and save time.. 

Grading Mechanical Drawings 

Every drawing made by a student should be carefully checked and 
graded. This should be done and the work returned to the student for 
necessary alterations and corrections as soon after its completion as pos- 
sible. The full value of the instruction cannot be received by the student 
if his w^ork is allowed to become "cold" by keeping it for a long period 
before returning it to him. The student should have the benefit of the 



39 

i^riticisms to aid in the succeeding sheets. A definite grade should be 
given the work and the student should be informed of the basis for that 
grade. An appreciation of the value of a certain amount of speed should 
be taught by setting a time limit for all sheets and deducting from the 
grade for work handed in late. 

The general items for consideration in grading a drawing are : 

Correctness 

Accuracy 

Quality of line work 

Lettering, title, etc. 

Dimensioning. 

The valuation to be placed on each division is subject to variation 
with the nature of the assignment. Each division may often be further 
subdivided to advantage, especially when grading the first few sheets. 

Another set of considerations for somewhat advanced work is: 

Method of Solution 

Correctness of work 

Character of mistakes 

Dimensioning, etc. 

Quality of work. 

Some schools use credit slips which are attached to the student's 
work when returned to him. This method is to be commended, as it 
tends to insure careful attention to grading, by the teacher and informs 
the student just where his work is defective. 



40 

A form or credit slip used in the high schools at Sioux Falls, S. D., 
by Mr. P. D. Gawne is shown in Fig. i. 

Sheet No. 

Balance ' 

Lettering 

Figures 

Solution 

Inking 

Lines 

Title 

Neatness 

Dimension Lines : 

Shade Lines 

Construction Lines 

Center Lines 

Dotted Lines 

Full Lines 

Arrow Heads 



Grade 



Fig. I 



41 



At Miami University Professor Whitcomb uses a printed form witb 
the items shown in Fig. 2. 



Name Date Due . 

Course No. 

Group No Division Plate. 



i i 
1 Maximum! 
j Credit ! Sketching 


Penciling 


Inking 


Tracing 


Blue 

Printing 


Correctness 


.40 




1 






Clearness 


.20 ; 


1 






Accuracy 


.15 








Neatness 


.10 ; 




■ 






Letterinj 


.10 1 








Speed 


.05 








Average 


1.00 1 

i 









Fig. 2 

A record of grades should be kept in such a form that the student's 
standing can be observed at any time. Graphical methods lend themselves- 
to this purpose, as illustrated by Figs. 3 and 4, which show the forms- 
of record cards used at the Ohio State University. Fig. 3 is for ele- 
mentary work and Fig. 4 for advanced work. 



42 




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43 



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44 



A Bibliography 

Every teacher of drawing should own and read other books than the 
one used as a text. He should become familiar with new books and 
should understand their value for reference purposes for himself and 
his students. 

A complete list of books having to do with mechanical drawing^ 
would be very long; over one hundred have been listed by members of 
the writer's class for mechanical drawing teachers. Many books, how- 
ever, are written for special conditions, others are out-of-date and some 
should not have been written at all. 

Books for reference, study and extra reading may be selected from 
the following list: 

"Cam Design and Manufacture" 

F. B. Jacobs. Pub. by D. Van Nostrand, N. Y. 
"Cams, Elementary and Advanced" 

F. R. De Furman. Pub. by Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 
Drafting Room Methods, Standards and Forms 

Chas. D. Collins. Pub. by D. Van Nostrand, N. Y. 
Elementary Mechanical Drawing 

John E. Jagger. Pub. by C. Griffith & Co., London, Eng. 
Elementary Mechanism 

James and MacKenzie. Pub. by Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 
Engineering Drawing 

Thomas E. French. Pub. by McGraw-Hill, N. Y. 
Essentials of Gearing 

Gardner C. Anthony. Pub. by D. C. Heath, Boston 
Essentials of Drafting 

Carl L. Svensen. Publ. by D. Van Nostrand, N. Y. 
Essentials of Lettering 

French and Meiklejohn, Pub. by McGraw-Hill, N. Y. 
Lessons in Lettering — Two Books 

French and Turnbull. Pub. by McGraw-Hill, N. Y. 
Freehand Lettering 

F. T. Daniels. Pub. by D. C. Heath, Boston 
Freehand Sketching 

F. E. Mathewson. Pub. by Taylor-Holden Co. 
Springfield, Mass. 

Fundamentals of Mechanical Drawing 

R. S. Kirby. Pub. by Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 
Grammer Grade Problems in Mechanical Drawing 

C. A. Bennett. Pub. by Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111. 
Introduction to the Graphic Language. 

G. C. Anthony. Pub. by D. C. Heath, Boston. 
Lettering for Draftsmen 

Charles W. Reinhardt. Pub. by D. Van Nostrand, N. Y. 
Machine Design 

Henry Spooner. Pub. by Longmans, Green & Co., N. Y. A good English 
book. 
Machine Drawing 

G. C. Anthony. Pub. by D. C. Heath, Boston 



45 

Machine Drawing 

Carl L. Svensen. Pub. by D. Van Nostrand, N. Y. 
Machine Drawing and Design 

Lowe and Bevis. Pub. by Longmans, Green & Co., N. Y. 
This is a standard English book. 
Mechanical Drawing 

G. C. Anthony. Pub. by D. C. Heath, Boston. 
Mechanical Drawing for Secondary Schools 

Crawshaw & Phillips. Pub. by Scott, Foresman Co., Chicago, III. 
Mechanical Drawing for High Schools 

French and Svensen. Pub. by McGraw-Hill, N. Y. 
Mechanical Drawing 

Pub. by Industrial Press, N. Y. 
Mechanical Drawing 

C. C. Leeds. Pub. by D. Van Nostrand, N. Y. 
Mechanical Drawing 

C W. Weick. Pub. by McGraw-Hill, N. Y. 
Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book 

Wm. Kent. Pub. by Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 
Mechanical Engineer's Handbook 

L. S. Marks. Pub. by McGraw-Hill, N. Y. 
Shop Sketching 

Ralph Windoes. Pub. by Bruce Publishing Co., Milwaukee, Wis. 
Working Drawings 

A. B. Babbitt. Pub. by Henry Holt & Co., N. Y. 
Working Drawings of Machinery 

James and MacKenzie. Pub. by Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 

Courses in Mechanical Drawing 

There are so many factors affecting the makeup of a drawing course 
that it is necessary to be somewhat general in regard to the details. The 
planning of a course is a matter of greatest importance and should not 
be left to chance or worked out from day to day. A well planned course 
is necessary to produce satisfactory results. In a city or town the general 
outline should be worked out by all the teachers together. The details 
may vary, but the extent of the subject covered and the results to be at- 
tained should be the same for all classes of a given grade. Moreover, 
the course should be planned as a part of a continuous subject extending 
from the 7th grade through the high school. It is neither necessary nor 
desirable for the high school teachers to plan the work for the grade 
schools. All the teachers of the subject should meet upon a basis of 
equality and together plan the content and relation of the several sep- 
arate courses. 

The importance of the first course should be recognized and prefer- 
ably taught by the best man available, who should be paid accordingly. 
The fundamentals must be taught as thoroughly as possible. Drawing 
should be taught as a language from the very beginning as a means of 
expression and never as a kind of picture making. 

There are many factors involved, such as the community in which 



46 

the school is located — the percentage who go to college — the percentage 
who go into shops and offices — the age at which the subject is started, 
the amount of time which can be given to the subject, etc., — a warning 
which should be emphasized is "Do not try to teach too many different 
things in a single course." It is better to teach a few principles thor- 
oughly than to scatter the student's efforts. All work should be well 
done and the teacher should insist upon a real understanding of a sheet 
completed before allowing the next one to be started. It is not a ques- 
tion of how many drawings or how large and complex but of how well 
done and how well understood. 

In the colleges, mechanical drawing courses are generally planned 
on similar outlines and follow French's "Engineering Drawing". En- 
gineering students should be taught the value of accuracy and neatness 
in solution, and thought. To this end correct work should be required 
of every student. 

Each part of every course in mechanical drawing should be analyzed 
with the following considerations in mind : 

Purpose 

Methods of Presentation 

Methods of Solution 

Results. 

There is one attitude which is taken by some teachers which has 
been expressed all too frequently in the remark, "I want to get just enough 
to teach the subject; I don't need to know all about it, as I don't want 
it to use." Such an attitude certainly is not one of the desirable qualifi- 
cations of a drawing tacher. Both training and experience are necessary. 

Special teacher training courses should be given where the subject 
of mechanical drawing can be discussed as an educational subject and 
as a useful art in the industries. Some of the considerations are : 

The purpose of the course 

The makeup of the course 

Relation of subject matter to age and environment of students 

The selection of problems 

The presentation of problems 

Checking methods of solution 

Recitations and examinations 

Grading and recording 

Selection of materials, instruments, etc. 

Uses of mechanical drawings 

Duplicating machines and methods 

The literature of the subject. 

A noted in the results of the survey, there are few colleges which 
offer specially designed courses for teachers of mechanical drawing. 
Ohio State University and Miami University and the normal schools pro- 



47 

vide such courses. There should, however, be a more general realization 
upon the part of drawing teachers of the necessity for such special 
preparation. 

SECTION V 

Conclusion 

The preceding sections have indicated the writer's attitude toward 
the subject of mechanical drawing, so that no extended conclusion is 
considered necessary. 

A few points may, however, be emphasized and one or two addi- 
tional suggestions made as follows : 

An adequate understanding of the purpose of courses in mechanical 
drawing in grade schools, high schools and colleges. 

An agreement as to the general content of each course. 

An agreement as to the quality of work expected in each course. 

A somewhat uniform standard or system, of grading drawings. 

A recognition of the inter-relation of grade schools, high schools- 
and colleges. 

A consideration of mechanical drawing as a continuous course 
through the grade schools, high schools and colleges. 

A desirable feature would be the issue of a syllabus for courses in 
mechanical drawing and other subjects by the State Department of Public 
Instruction. 

: Definite state requirements for each course would seem to be de- 
sirable. The actual problems, etc., can well be left to the teacher, but 
the general subject matter might well be systematized for the various- 
courses. 

Recognition of, and provision for adequate preparation of teachers 
of mechanical drawing. There should be certain required qualifications 
for teachers of this subject. 

This survey indicates that the subject of mechanical drawing is very 
generally taught throughout the State but there seems to be rather less 
definite agreement as to purpose, content and methods than for other 
fundamental studies. 



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